Circuit breakers, fuses and ground fault circuit interrupters (GFCIs) are commonly used devices for protecting people and property from dangerous electrical faults. Fatalities and loss of property caused by electrical faults that go undetected by these protective devices still occur. One such type of electrical fault that typically goes undetected are arc faults. Arcs are potentially dangerous due to the high temperatures contained within them. Thus, they have a high potential of creating damage, mostly through the initiation of fires. An arc, however, will trip a GFCI only if it produces sufficient current leakage to ground. In addition, an arc will trip a breaker only if the current flowing through the arc exceeds the trip parameters of the thermal/magnetic mechanism of the breaker. Therefore, an additional type of protection device is needed to detect and interrupt arcs. An arc detector whose output is used to trigger a circuit interrupting mechanism is referred to as an Arc Fault Circuit Interrupter (AFCI).
The causes of arcing are numerous, for example: aged or worn insulation and wiring; mechanical and electrical stress caused by overuse, over currents or lightning strikes; loose connections; and mechanical damage to insulation and wires. Two types of arcing can occur in residential and commercial buildings: contact arcing and line arcing. Contact or series arcing occurs between two contacts in series with a load. Therefore, the load controls the current flowing in the arc. Line or parallel arcing occurs between the conductors of a circuit or from a conductor to ground. In this case the arc is in parallel with any load present and the source impedance provides the only limit to the current flowing in the arc.
An example of contact arcing is illustrated in FIG. 1. The conductors 114, 116 comprising the cable 110, are separated and surrounded by an insulator 112. A portion of the conductor 114 is broken, creating a series gap 118 in conductor 114. Under certain conditions, arcing will occur across this gap, producing a large amount of localized heat. The heat generated by the arcing might be sufficient to break down and carbonize the insulation close to the arc 119. If the arc is allowed to continue, enough heat will be generated to start a fire.
A schematic diagram illustrating an example of line arcing is shown in FIG. 2. Cable 120 comprises electrical conductors 124, 126 covered by outer insulation 122 and separated by inner insulation 128. Deterioration or damage to the inner insulation at 121 may cause line fault arcing 123 to occur between the two conductors 124, 126. The inner insulation could have been carbonized by an earlier lightning strike to the wiring system, or it could have been cut by mechanical action such as a metal chair leg cutting into an extension cord.
The potentially devastating results of arcing are widely known and a number of methods of detecting arcs have been developed in the prior art. A large percentage of the prior art refers to detecting high frequency signals generated on the AC line by arcs.
A wide range of prior art exists in the field of arc detection. Some of the prior art refer to specialized instances of arcing. For example, U.S. Pat. No. 4,376,243, issued to Renn, et al., teaches a device that operates with DC current. U.S. Pat. No. 4,658,322, issued to Rivera, teaches a device that detects arcing within an enclosed unit of electrical equipment. U.S. Pat. No. 4,878,144, issued to Nebon, teaches a device that detects the light produced by an arc between the contacts of a circuit breaker.
In addition, there are several patents that refer to detecting arcs on AC power lines that disclose various methods of detecting high frequency arcing signals. For example, U.S. Pat. Nos. 5,185,684 and 5,206,596, both issued to Beihoff et al., employ a complex detection means that separately detects the electric field and the magnetic field produced around a wire. U.S. Pat. No. 5,590,012, issued to Dollar, teaches measuring the high frequency current in a shunted path around an inductor placed in the line, which can be the magnetic trip mechanism of a breaker. In a second detection circuit, proposed by Dollar, high frequency voltage signal is extracted from the line via a high pass filter placed in parallel with any load.
Various methods can be found in the prior art to authenticate arcing and to differentiate arcing from other sources of noise. Much of the prior art involves complicated signal processing and analysis. U.S. Pat. No. 5,280,404, issued to Ragsdale, teaches looking for series arcing by converting the arcing signals to pulses and counting the pulses.
In addition, several patents detect arcing by taking the first derivative or second derivative of the detected signal. For example, U.S. Pat. No. 5,224,006, issued to MacKenzie et al., and U.S. Pat. Nos. 5,185,684 and 5,206,596, issued to Beihoff et al, disclose such a device.
Blades uses several methods to detect arcs as disclosed in U.S. Pat. Nos. 5,223,795, 5,432,455 and 5,434,509. The Blades device is based on the fact that detected high frequency noise must include gaps at each zero crossing, i.e., half cycle, of the AC line. To differentiate arcing from other sources of noise, the Blades device measures the randomness and/or wide bandwidth characteristics of the detected high frequency signal. The device taught by U.S. Pat. No. 5,434,509 uses the fast rising edges of arc signals as a detection criterion and detects the short high frequency bursts associated with intermittent arcs.
U.S. Pat. No. 5,561,505, issued to Zuercher et al., discloses a method of detecting arcing by sensing cycle to cycle changes in the AC line current. Differences in samples taken at the same point in the AC cycle are then processed to determine whether arcing is occurring.
A characteristic of arcing on a conductor is the occurrence of high frequency signals which are different from the frequency (normally 60 cycles) of the current for which the conductor is intended to carry. Electrical arcing produced by alternating voltage will extinguish each time the voltage across the arc drops below a value sufficient to sustain the arc, and will re-ignite each time the voltage across the arc exceeds the arc's minimum ignition voltage. The ignition voltage is substantially proportional to the size of the physical gap that the arc must traverse.
The extinction voltage tends to be lower than the ignition voltage. When the arc gap is very large, the arc will be intermittent and unstable and will tend to extinguish itself and re-ignite as conditions permit. As the gap becomes smaller, the arc becomes more persistent and eventually self-sustaining. When the gap becomes much smaller, the arc tends to self-extinguish by completing the current path. When the arc conducts current, it produces high frequency signals on the electrical conductors.
A number of systems that have been developed to detect arcing in buildings do so by monitoring high frequency signals present on the conductors. One such method of detecting arcing is by an arc detector that detects the derivative of the signal on the conductor. Typically, such arc detectors employ, for example, current transformers to produce signals representative of the high frequency signals on the wiring being monitored. Current transformers both add to the manufacturing cost of the arc fault detector and, because of the size of the components, creates packaging difficulties. In addition, current transformers have a limited high frequency response and poor signal-to-noise ratio.
Accordingly, there is a need for an arc fault detector that provides improved signal to noise ratio, improve high frequency response, that is relatively economical to build and that is relatively small in size.